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General History |
The
steppes and deserts covering most of Asia between the northern forests and the
fertile southern basins have been inhabited since the bronze age (2000 - 1500
BC) by organized societies whose history is not well known because, being
nomadic, these people did not leave the physical traces (cities, forts, castles,
temples, monuments, etc.) that landmark the passage of those who chose
agriculture and a sedentary life. They did however leave bronze, silver and gold
artwork of astonishing sophistication and antiquity (bronze axes 1500 BC in
Siberia, Cimerian bronze and gold 1200 BC in the steppe north of the Black sea,
Scythian gold 800 BC north of the Caspian, Hsiong-Nu(Huns) bronze art 600 BC
from Baikal & Chita, etc).
Nomadic
tribes who move herds from pasturage to pasturage over vast steppes are the
natural enemies of fixed communities who lead sedentary lives based on
agriculture. Nomads own only what they can carry while agriculturalists
accumulate surpluses, which become tempting booty for nomad raiders. This basic
truism has been the most important factor in the history of China, of Russia and
of the Central Asian Countries until cannons and muskets destroyed the natural
advantage mounted archers have over foot soldiers.
The
history of the nomadic tribes is very complex. They were always moving,
sometimes over long distances and their allegiances were short lived because
they were not tied down to any particular piece of land. For the purpose of this
travelogue, these notes have therefore to be limited to the most important
events that have marked the countries I have just visited. They also have to
simplify and cut corners to provide a common thread between China and the ex
soviet countries which are the subject of this paper. A good start is to
classify the steppe people into three main linguistic families, Indo-European,
Turkic and Mongol. It is also useful to trace the evolution of their religious
identity between Shamanist, Manicheist, Nestorian, Buddhist and Muslim in order
to understand their movements.
The
Cimerian, Scythian, (or Saka) and Sarmatian barbarians mentioned in greek and
roman history spoke indo-European languages. The Saka, who had stopped
Alexander's eastward expansion, controlled north central asia and related
tribes, the Yue-Tsi were occupying the Tarim basin oases when the Han began
their westward expansion in 200 BC. Pushed out of Gansu by the Han and out of
the Tarim by the Hsiong-nu(Huns), the Yue-Tsi moved west into Saka lands and
both overran greek Bactriana around 150 BC giving rise to the indo-European
Buddhist Kushan Dynasty which controlled northern India, Afghanistan and
Sogdiana until the 3rd century AD. Today's Tajiks are descendants of these
tribes who converted to Islam. Their indo-European language is similar to
Persian but they are now surrounded by Turkic speaking Uyghur Kyrgyz and Uzbek
people.
After 210 B.C., the Uyghurs played important roles in the Hun (220 B.C. - 386
A.D.), Tabgach (Toba) (386-554 A.D.), and Kok Turk (552-744 A.D.) empires which
were established in Central Asia
In
670, 688, 692 A.D., the Uyghurs, the Kok Turk and the Shato joined the Tibetan
Armies in their military expeditions in capturing the Chinese invasion
strongholds in north and northeast Central Asia.
The
first Turkish tribe that is mentioned is the Huns made
their appearance in the 8th Century B.C. Chinese sources refer to
the Huns as Hiung-nu and its is here that the culture of horseback migration
first makes its appearance in history. The Huns who migrated to the West in time
achieved superiority over the Germans, of the same horseback discipline as
themselves, and over the highly cultured Romans, because of their splendid state
of readiness and amazing mobile capabilities.
Founded
in 552 AD by Bumin Kagan, the Gokturks engaged in widespread diplomatic
activity. Although the Gokturks were forced to become subjects of China in
the 7th Century, they regained their independence in 632, led
by a hero named Kutluk. In the year 716 Kutluk’s son Bilge Kagan became
the ruler, and prosperity with the aid of his brother Kultegin
and his father’s elderly vezir, Tonyukuk. This lasted until the
year 745. The famed Orhun Epitaphs from this period are made up of
the tombstone inscriptions of Tonyukuk (d.720), Kultegin (d.731) and Bilge Kagan
(d.734).
Ancient
Greek, Iranian, and Chinese sources placed Uyghurs with their tribes, and
sub-tribes in the vast area between the west banks of the Yellow River in the
east, Tarim Basin n in the west, and in the Mongolian steppe in the northeast as
early as 300 B.C
After
the fall of the Kok-Turk Empire in Central Asia, the Uyghurs established their
first state in 744, with the city of Karabalgasun, on the banks of the Orkhun
River, as its capital.
The
founder of this Uyghur state was Kutluk Bilge Kul Khagan (King or Ruler). In
747, he was succeeded by his son Moyunchur, a powerful leader who subdued other
Turkic clans, consolidated the monarchy, and extended his rule in the north to
Lake Baikal, in the east to Gansu and in the southwest to India.
It
so happened that just as the Uyghurs became united and strong, the Chinese Tang
Dynasty under Hsuan-tsung (Xuanzong) (712-756 A.D.) was undergoing a sharp
decline. In 751, a Chinese army was disastrously defeated at the battle of Talas
River by the Arabs, Tibetans, and the Uyghurs. In the same year, a Chinese
invasion of the Nan-chao (Nanzhao) to the southeast was thwarted with appalling
losses to the Chinese; and a Chinese force under An Lu Shan was defeated by the
Khitan (Qidan) in the northeast. These disasters were but the prelude to a much
more fearful catastrophe - the rebellion of the former trusted minister An Lu
Shan which broke out in 755 A.D.
It
was under these circumstances that the Uyghurs were invited by Su-tsung (Suzong),
the Hsuan-tsung's (Xuanzong) successor, to send armies to help the Chinese. In
this event, the Uyghur forces played a key role in the recapture of both
Chang-An (Chang'an) and Lo-yang (Luoyang) in 757. The Uyghurs did not hesitate
to exploit the Tang Dynastic debt owed them, by acts of appalling pillage. The
Chinese emperor agreed to pay 20,000 rolls of silk as a tribute annually to the
Uyghurs and granted the Uyghur Khagan one of his daughters in marriage.
Moyunchur
Khagan died in 759 and was succeeded by his son Bugu Khagan. During his reign,
the Uyghurs reached the apex of their power. They began with China, which
engaged in forced trade of Uyghur horses for Chinese silk - an exchange which
was noted frequently in Chinese sources before 829.
In
762 Bugu Khagan sent to the Middle Kingdom where he helped the Tang Dynasty in
the final battles against the rebellion, which had racked it for so long.
In
779, his first cousin and chief minister Baga Tarkan killed Bugu Khagan. Bugu
Khagan's Sogdian allies and advisors had wanted him to take advantage of the
death in 779 of Emperor Tai-tsung (Taizong) and the state mourning involved in
it, to undertake an invasion of China. Bugu Khagan agreed to do this. His first
cousin Baga Tarkan opposed the plan; and when he saw the tide turning against
him, murdered Bugu Khagan and set himself on the throne. Baga Tarkan, believed
at this stage China could have been conquered by the Uyghurs. But he did not
believe that Uyghurs would be able to preserve their cultural identity if they
once conquered China, a vast and populous country even then.
After
the death of Baga Tarkan in 789 and specially after that of his successor,
Kutlug Bilge Khagan in 790, Uyghur power and prestige declined
In
795, the rule of the Uyghur state passed to another clan. Under this new clan
the Uyghurs became more and more steeped in religion, which softened them and
planted seeds of advanced culture, which characterized the Uyghurs of later
ages.
The
most important ruler of this clan was Kutluk Bilge Khagan, whose successful
military exploits, both before and during his reign, are reported in the
Karabalgasun inscriptions. He did not succeed , however, in restoring the Uyghur
empire to its former power.
With
Kutluk Bilge Khagan's death in 805, the forces of disintegration of the Uyghur
state gathered momentum. War broke out abroad with the powerful Kyrgyz neighbors
to the north; while at home, court intrigue eroded the power of the royal
family; rebellions broke out, and, to add to everything, a bad season and severe
winter in 839 killed much of the livestock upon which the Uyghur economy was so
dependent. In 840, the Kyrgyz, invited by a rebel chief, attacked the tottering
state, killed the Khagan, and took the capital.They
were overrun in 840 by the Kyrgyz who replaced them in the heart of Mongolia.
The defeated Uyghur tribes migrated to the Tarim basin oases where they still
are today
After
the fall of the first Uyghur empire, a group of Uyghurs emigrated to the west
banks of the Yellow River in Kansu (Gansu); a second group emigrated via Yetti
Su to the Southern part of Khan Tengri Tagh
Uyghur region; the third and the largest group emigrated to the northern part of
Khan Tengri where their ancestors are still living.
The
Uyghur picked up the pieces and founded their own Uyghur Dynasty, which lasted a
century (744 - 840). The Uyghur (from around the Selenga river), developed one
of the first Turkic alphabets by adapting the ancient sogdian alphabet to convey
Turkic phonemes.
The Kengsu (Kanchou ,Ganzhou) Uyghur Kingdom,
which was established in today's Kansu province of China, in 850, never became a
major power, but the Chinese had great respect for it as seen from the Chinese
court praise Kanchou (Ganzhou) Uyghur King when an Uyghur and a Tibetan
ambassador visited the Chinese capital in 911. . Nevertheless, this kingdom was
absorbed in 1228 by the Tankuts who established a state in the area known as
Western Hsia.
Several thousand of these Uyghurs still live
in the Kansu (Gansu) area under the name yellow Uyghurs or Yugurs, preserving
their old Uyghur mother tongue and their ancient Yellow sect of Lamaist
Buddhism.
The Uyghurs living in the northern part of
Khan Tengri (Tianshan Mountains) in Eastern Turkestan established the Karakhoja
Uyghur Kingdom (Qocho) near the present day city of Turfan (Turpan), in 846. The
Chinese recognized this kingdom and sent Wang Yen (Yan) De in 981 to Karakhoja
as their ambassador . Wang Yen (Yan)
De stayed in Karakhoja for three years.
The Karakhojas were Buddhists.